General Information: 
Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry

The Tamil Country, including present day Tamil Nadu State and the Union Territory of Pondicherry or Puducherry, is well-known for its ancient temples. The origin of many of the temples are several centuries and perhaps millennia old. Some temples likely originated as small stone age cave temples and dolmen-like structures that have evolved into their current large forms. People have contributed to the expansion and embellishment of these structures over many centuries. Kings and merchant guilds have been at the forefront of building these temples. What we see today is the culmination of building, renovation and rebuilding that has taken place over many ages. Some of the original construction has not survived. The sanctity of these temple sites are independent of the structures that exist there today. Other temples were built in a certain era and have remained more or less unchanged. These temples were bulit by kings and other powerful people to commemorate their reigns, great military victories and sacrifices. Sepulchral temples were built for kings who died in battle. 

 

To discuss the history of temples would be to discuss the history of the region itself and would be a daunting task. The Tamil Country has a long and colourful history and it would take a book to include all the details. Our effort here is to give a brief summary to the reader of this blog site so that she/he can have a fuller understanding of the histories of the individual temples. 

 

The earliest literature in the Tamil language is the corpus of works commonly referred to as the Sangam Literature. It is a collection of poems of various lengths compiled into 36 anthologies compiled in the first half of the first millennium CE. The exact date of the compositions are not clear. They are likely much older than the dates of their compilation. The works are likely from different times with the earliest works as old as the 3rd century BCE and the latest belonging to the 3rd century CE. These poems do describe the existence of temples. The most revered temples like Palani, Thiruparankundram, Srirangam, Chidambaram and Madurai to name a few, find mention in these verses. How these temples looked like in those times is not clear. It is also of note that during this time and beyond, other religions besides Vedic Hinduism, such as the heterodox religions like Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika flourished in the Tamil country. So there must have been a multitude of religious structures. 

 

The ancient texts describe three main kingdoms in the Tamil country, the Chola, Chera and Pandya. They were known as the Mooventhar, the three kings. The Chola ruled the fertile flood plains of the Kaveri delta with their capital cities at Uraiyur ( present day Tiruchirapalli) and Pazhayarai (near Kumbakonam). The Chera controlled the spice-rich area between the Western Ghats and the Indian Ocean, present day Kerala, and the northwestern part of present day Tamil Nadu known as the Kongu. Their capitals were at Vanji ( its exact location is unclear but could have been somewhere on the western coast likely near Kodungallur - the ancient Muziris) and Karur further inland on the other side of the Western Ghats. The Pandians reigned over the southern regions and controlled the pearl-trade, with their capital at Madurai. All three kingdoms engaged in thriving trade beyond their borders. The Asokan Rock Edicts dated to about 250 BCE, mention the Chola, Chera, Pandya and Satyaputra. The Satyaputra refer to the Adhiyaman dynasty which ruled in the Kongu at that time and are believed to have been a branch of the Chera. There were other minor kingdoms too, including the Ay in the southwest and other Velir chieftains scattered around the Tamil Country. They were mainly vassals of the major kings.  The Sangam period was followed by what is called the Kalabhra interregnum. It is believed that a dynasty alien to the Tamil country ruled for a couple centuries. Often described as a dark age, the period is controversial. Some historians question its very existence. Very little known is known of the details of this period. Subsequently, two great powers emerged, the Pallava to the northeast with their territory in the Thondai Nadu around present day Chennai and the Pandya further south. Although there is evidence that the Pallava were present as early as the 4th century CE, they appear to have been in the southern part of present day Karnataka at that time. Their foray into the Tamil Country appears to have occurred in the 6th century.

 

The earliest temple structures have not survived. They were likely built of brick, wood and other perishable materials and have not endured. The earliest temples that have survived date back to the Pallava era in the northeast and the contemporary Pandya dynasty in the south. There are two ruined brick temples belonging to the pre-Pallava era, the remnants of which give us an idea of how temples of that era might have looked like. The are both brick structures. One is the ruined Murugan temple at Saluvankuppam south of Chennai, near Mahabalipuram and the other is the Vishnu temple at Veppathur near Kumbakonam.

 

The most ancient temples that have survived intact belong to the Pallava dynasty which ruled the northeast part of the Tamil country from about the 6th century to the 9th century CE. Their twin capitals were at Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram. Their earliest temples were elaborate cave temples. The most famous of them are at Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram. They are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Monument collection there. There are others dotted around the territory that they ruled. The earliest are dated to around 600 CE. They also built some temples that were not cave temples but rock-cut monolithic temples, meaning that the entire temple was sculpted out of a single stone. The Pancha Rathas at Mahabalipuram are examples of this type. There are others. The most exquisite example of this kind of temple of course exists in present day Maharashtra, the Kailasanatha temple built by the Rashtrakuta kings in the 8th century.  At the time the Pallavas were ruling the northeast of the Tamil country, the Pandians reigned in the deep south. They also built cave temples and attempted rock cut monolithic temples. The complex at Kalugumalai is an example.

 

The earliest true structural temples that have survived intact were built by the Pallavas. The most famous example and one of the most ancient is the beautiful shore temple at Mahabalipuram. It is not an active temple and is a tourist attraction today. Built around the late 7th century or early 8th CE it was built by the Pallava king Narasimha Pallavan II. Other examples are the Kailasanathar at and Vaikundaperumal temples at Kanchipuram and the Thaalagriswarar at Panamalai. There are others built by minor kings, around or shortly after this period like the ruined complex at Narthamalai known as Vijayalayacholeeswaram built by the Mutharaiyar kings in the 9th century and the Moovar Koil in Kodumbalur.

 

In the late 9th century a young prince by the name of Vijayalayan, from the Chola dynasty which at that time was a vassal of the Pallavas and was ruling a small territory around the ancient town of Pazhayarai near Kumbakonam, led a force against the Mutharaiyar, another vassal of the Pallava which was ruling at Thanjavur. Vijayalayan was victorious and expanded his territory and became a force to be reckoned with. The Pallava, whose power was in decline at that time, embraced the the rising Cholas and made them allies in their wars against the western Chalukyas further to their north and west. Vijayalayan and his son Adityan soon took advantage of this situation, wrested power from the Pallavas and made them subordinate. From this beginning they built an empire that was to take control of the whole of South India and beyond for the better part of the next 4 centuries. The deeply Saivite Chola were prolific temple builders. Although their primary focus was building temples to Siva, they were very tolerant kings and they were very generous to all sects and faiths including Vaishnavite temples. Their initial efforts were towards renovating and rebuilding existing temples into granite stone temples. Adityan was an important king in this regard. Many of the Paadal Petra Sthalams were rebuilt in stone. They called it the Kalthondu - the service of stone. Many of those temples have endured. Adityan's grandson Gangaradityan's widow Sembian Mahadevi was another great builder of stone temples. As the Chola empire grew they built new temples all over the Tamil land. The most impressive example of this effort was of course the grand project to build the Great Temple at Thanjavur which was completed by Raja Rajan in the early 11th century. Many others like the Brihadeeswarar at Gangaikondacholapuram, the Airavatesvarar at Darasuram, the Kampaheswarar at Thirubhuvanam near Kumbakonam were built over the ensuing centuries.

 

In the early 13th century, as Chola power was waning, the Pandians made a comeback and wrested control of the south and gradually all of the Tamil country except for a few pockets from the Cholas..The Pandians during this time were great patrons of temples and their construction. They built many additions to the Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple in Madurai. During these chaotic period the Hoysalas who were based in southern Karnataka controlled large swathes of the Tamil country. They renovated many temples. We can see the Hoysala influence in temples like the massive Arunalachaleswarar at Thiruvannamalai, the revered temple of Thiruvanaikkaaval and the ancient Siva temple at Thiruvasi near Trichy.

 

In the early 14th century there was a war of succession between two half-brothers who were vying for the Pandian throne, One, Sundarapandian sought the aid of the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin Khilji, in his conflict with his half-brother Veerapandian. Alauddin Khilji sent the ruthless eunuch general Malik Kafur with a large military force to Madurai. On their way they plundered and destroyed many temples. Temples like Srirangam and Chidambaram fell victim to this rampage and eventually they destroyed the Madurai Meenakshiamman. It was ransacked. The spoils were so valuable to Alauddin Khilji in his wars with his Afghan foes that he sent many more expeditions in search of plunder. Eventually a Sultanate was established at Madurai which came to be known as the Madurai Sultanate or the Sultanate of M'bar. For the next half century, the great temple at Madurai and temples across the land lay in ruins as the Sultans ruled their territories with an iron fist. The entrance ways of the Madurai temple were used as gallows for many decades. Around 1375 the Vijayanagara prince and general, Kumara Kampanna, son of Bukka I, led an expedition that liberated the Tamil country including Srirangam and Madurai from the tyranny of the Sultans.

 

The Vijayanagar kings built many temples and embellished the existing temples with their own unique style. The towering gopurams were a feature that developed during their time. In Chola times the vimanam often was taller than the gopurams. Starting in Pandian times and during the Vijayanagar and subsequent eras the gopurams became taller and started to dwarf the vimanams. Although they were predominantly Vaisnavite kings, they patronized Saivite temples also and treated them equally. The great temple at Chidambaram was given a brand new towering gopuram during the visit of the great Vijayanagar emperor Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century.

 

During the Vijayanagar period, the Tamil country was ruled by Telugu speaking governors appointed by the emperor and were called Nayaks or Nayakkar in the Tamil country. There were Nayakkars in Madurai, Thanjavur and Senji. With the decline of the Vijayanagar empire towards the end of the 16th century especially after their defeat at the hands of the Sultanates at the battle of Talikota in 1565, the Nayakkans became independent kings of their own accord. The Madurai Nayakkar was the most powerful of these and they were instrumental in rebuilding many temples. They embellished temples both Vaisnavite and Saivite with elaborate new projects, Towering gopurams and multi-pillared Mandapams were built. Beautiful and intricate granites sculptures were created. The gopurams and vimanams were adorned with multicoloured life-like stucco images. The walls and ceilings were decorated with colourful paintings and murals. The temple as we know it today evolved fully during this period.

 

When the Nayakkar, especially the Madurai Nayakkar dynasty ended in the early to mid -18th century, their territories fell into the hands of the Marathas of Thanjavur, the Nawab of Arcot who was a vassal of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the minor kingdoms of Ramnad and Pudukottai. The Marathas patronized temples in the Thanjavur area and revamped a number of them. The Pudukottai and Ramnad kings contributed to the upkeep and rebuilding of many temples in their areas of control. In the very south some areas were under the Travancore kings and they have left their mark there.

 

With the advent of the European colonial powers the temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry suffered again. Many temples were plundered and destroyed especially on the coasts. As the two main European powers established themselves, they did not indulge in religiously motivated destruction but neglected their upkeep. Some temples like the Great Temple at Thanjavur were used as a barracks and armouries by British soldiers for some decades. But during the latter years of colonial rule the colonial powers were more considerate. The French especially participated in the reconstruction of many temples in the areas they controlled around Pondicherry. During this time, certain mercantile communities like the Nattukkottai Chettiar contributed immensely towards the maintenance of many temples.

 

The above is but a brief summary and we left out many details to keep the summary short. The reader should also keep in mind that history is a subject that evolves over time as new information comes to light and old information is proven wrong. So we will revise this post from time to time.

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