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General Information: 
Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry

This page contains articles pertaining to various aspects regarding the temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry including art, architecture, history etc.

1.Overview

2. Architecture

3.History

4.Salient Features

5.Sacred Idols

6.Roles of Temples

7.Preservation

8.Ownership and Administration

 

Clicking on any of above title headings will take you to the relevant article

TEMPLES OF TAMIL NADU  AND PONDICHERRY - AN OVERVIEW

The temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are numerous. They vary according to their antiquity, traditions, regions where they are found and styles.  Some are ancient and some are of recent construction. Some are active and some are not. Some are well known and others are not. How does someone who has very little knowledge, experience at least some of these temples when there are such a bewildering number to choose from?

The earliest existent temples are around 1500 years or older. Some temples have been constructed on the sites of older places of worship and as such the actual sites are older than the current structures. So one approach would be to concentrate on the antiquity of the temples. Here too it becomes complicated because many temples were not entirely built in a certain era or period in history. Their construction spans multiple centuries. They were built upon by different dynasties that ruled this land. So these temples are the end result of about 1500 years of constant renewal, renovation and addition. Some other temples were built in a certain, single era by a single king or dynasty and have remained more or less untouched since.

Most temples are active temples and are places of current worship. People who visit these temples should take care to be respectful and not offend people who worship at these temples. Having said, that most Hindu temples are very tolerant and welcoming places, although some temples have areas that are restricted to Hindus only. Most older, active temples are owned and operated by the government. Initially independent institutions, they were, except for a very few, taken over by the government in the 1920s. Today they are administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu. Other temples, which are not active, are historical monuments and are administered by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI), which is a an agency of the Indian Central Government while a few are managed by the Archeological Department of the Tamil Nadu Government. Access to these sites are generally less restrictive. Some have paid admission while others are free.

Temples can also be classified according to popularity and fame. If you type in "Temples of Tamil Nadu" or " Best Temples of Tamil Nadu" or some such entry into a Google search you will end up with about 30 to 40 temples. These are but a handful of the temples in existence. They are well known because they are large and beautiful temples. To the faithful, they are also special due to their reputation as very sacred places of worship. It is difficult to define the line between well known and lesser known temples as it depends on the knowledge and experience of the person making these definitions. 

Temples can be classified according to the main deity in the temple. There are temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, Shakthy, Murugan and Ganesha. The majority of the temples are either Saivite (Siva is the primary deity) or Vaishnavite (the primary deity is Vishnu). Numerous other temples are dedicated to Murugan, frequently identified as the Tamil god.  There also Jain temples which are mostly inactive. In addition there also ancient churches and mosques too.

The temples can be classified according to literary mention too. There are about 276 temples that are dedicated in the 7th to 9th century Saivite canonical work the Thevaram. These are called the Paadal Petra Sthalams. These sites can be safely dated to that period. The vast majority of them are in Tamil Nadu. There are another 150 or so sites that are casually mentioned in the Thevaram and are called Thevara Vaippu Sthalams. The most important Vishnu temples are known as the Divya Desams. They find mention in the Vaisnavite Tamil canonical work the Naalaira Divya Prabantham. They are 108 in number and most of them are in Tamil Nadu. Then there are the Arupadai Veedu or the 6 abodes of Murugan. There are other groupings according to their importance. We will explore these further on.

Tamil Nadu is a big state and has many regions. In ancient times these regions were different kingdoms. As such the temples can be classified according to region also. The very south including the area around Madurai and further south is Pandian country. To the northeast of it and with the delta of the River Kaveri as its centre, including the ancient city of Thanjavur, is the Chola country. Further north along the coast the area around the current state capital of Chennai is known as Thondai Nadu. To the west, closer to the Western Ghats is the Kongu. Then there are areas like Nadunadu or centre country sandwiched between the Thondai and the Chola lands.

 

So there are many ways to approach the temples of Tamil Nadu and explore and experience them. Nobody can expect to see them all in their life times. So it is important to pick some and visit them to learn about a culture that has existed for millennia. The cultural treasures including the sculpture and architecture are fabulous. They are spiritual places to visit and be blessed.

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TEMPLES OF TAMIL NADU AND PONDICHERRY : ARCHITECTURE 

In this post we will familiarize ourselves with the basic plan and architectural elements of a South Indian temple. This is a simple approach for the benefit of those who have rarely or never visited one of these temples. To others this will be of little value or a refresher.

 

The architecture of South Indian temples belongs to the Dravidian style and is distinctly different from those found in other parts of India, although they follow the same principles. The Dravidian style is the predominant style of temples in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra, Telangana, Kerala and Sri Lanka.

 

Most temples have a similar layout and design but there are important differences and every temple is unique. They look similar because they were built according to a certain set of principles that were codified in the 8th century. There are several texts called the Shilpa Sastras and the Agamas that clearly lay out how a temple should be built. These temples are built according to the coordinates of Yantras, ancient and mystical diagrams that represent the universe.

 

The most important part of a temple is the moolasthaanam or sanctum sanctorum. It is the womb of the temple or the Garbagraham. The primary deity resides here. It is usually a fixed, idol. This space is quite small in older temples. In Sivan temples it is usually but not always a lingam. In other temples, it is an idol made of stone or other material such as wood or metal depicting the primary deity. This small space can be square, rectangular, circular or apsidal and is capped by the Vimanam which also comes in many shapes. Just in front of this is an ante-chamber that is called the Arthamandapam. Surrounding these two structures is the great hall or Mahamandapam that has several subsidiary shrines. This complex has one or 3 entrances and is enclosed. Surrounding these are a series of often rectangular walled enclosures that are the circumbulatory pathways or Prakarams. The inner ones are enclosed with roofs but the outer ones are open. They are in a sequence of odd numbers and are up to 7 in larger temples. The outermost is usually not surrounded by a wall. The enclosures house several subsidiary shrines and the Uthsavamoorthy the processional idol which is usually a movable metal idol. The walls have alcoves or recesses that house a wide variety of deities called Koshta idols..

 

As you enter the temple the first structure is the gopuram or temple tower. It is usually built over the entrance of a walled enclosure. These were mostly later additions in time and in a lot of temples dwarf the height of the Vimanam. You then encounter the Kodimaram (the flagstaff), the Balipeedam (the sacrificial altar) and the Vaahanam ( Vehicle - Nanthi in Sivan temples and Garuda in Vishnu temples). The entrance to the Arthamandapam is flanked by two large guardian statues usually called the Dwarapaalakar.

 

Historically the earliest temples were likely made of brick, wood and mud that did not survive the ravages of time and rebuilding efforts. Many sites are ancient and predate the actual structures that we see today. The original structures likely evolved from caves and dolmen-like stone structures and evolved into existing temples. The Saivite canonical work the Thevaram mentions many temples and some of it was compiled in the early seventh century. It does mention structural temples. The structure of these temples are unclear as they were probably built of perishable or impermanent materials. The structures that have endured were built from the seventh century onwards and start with the elaborate cave temples built by the Pallava kings. The Pandian kings further south also built some. The first structural temples that have survived, started to appear during the Pallava period and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram built circa 725 CE, is an early example. During this period the temples started taking the shape, form and layout that have persisted to this day. During the tenth century the Chola kings were emerging as the preeminent power in the Tamil country and started to build grand structural temples of granite. Much of this effort has survived. They also converted most if not all existing important temples into granite structures. However. although the core of these temples were from this era, many additional structures were added on to in subsequent periods by Pandian, Vijayanagara and Nayakkan kings as well as others. The area of the temples were expanded by adding a series of walled enclosures creating circumbulatory pathways or Prakarams. Some of these temples became quite large in extent and occupied a central and important part of many towns which became known as temple towns.The Gopuram which is the towering entrance way became an important and prominent feature of the temple beginning in the twelfth century onwards under Pandian, Vijayanagara and Nayakkan rule and persist to this day. They trace their origins to early Pallava and Chola temples but were much smaller structures then.*

 

Hope this will give the reader the context to appreciate these temples. The illustrations below will further explain this. They are examples and illustrate the common design but many variations exist.

 

* George Michell - The Hindu Temple - An Introduction to Its Meaning and Form - University of Chicago Press 1988

 

 

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Basic layout of temple
Basic layout of temple

1.Moolavar - The Principal Deity  2. The Dwarapalakar - The temple guards  3. Arumikar -Murugan  4. The Goddess shrine 5. Durga  6. Brahma  7. Dakshinamoorthy  8. Nadanavinayagar  9. Somaskanthamoorthy  10. Vinayagar - Ganesha 11. Naalvar - The Four  12. Saptha Kannis - The seven celestial maidens.  13. Balasubramaniyar -Murugan  14. The 63 Nayanmar  15. Athilingam  16. Uma Devi  17. Kannivinayagar  18. Lingothbavar.  19. Chandikeshvarar  20. Saneeswarar  21. Sivasooriyar  22. Kaalabhairavar  23. Jooraharesvarar  24. Akora Veerabadrar  25. Navagraha - The nine celestial bodies  26. Oorthava Thandavamoorthy  27. Nataraja 28. Murugan Palliyarai  29. Secret Passageway  30. 31,32.  Mummudi Vinayagar  33. Nandhi  34. Balipeedam 35. Kodimaram  36. Murugan 37. Sakasralingam  38. Karunambigai 39.Vinayagar.  40. Avinasiyappar. 41. Kalyanamandapam - The Wedding Hall 42. Ganesha in Nine Pillared Hall 43. Entranceway
48. The Sthala Viruksham - The temple tree.  49. Yaaka Saalai  50. Vaasakasalai - Reasding Room.  51. Pandaka Saalai - Store Room.  52. Temple Office.  53. Vinayakalingam  54. Akayalingam  55. Prithvilingam  56. Vayulingam  57. Theuyulingam  58. Appulingam  59. Vinayagar Shrine  60. The Gopuram. 

The above is by no means representative of how a temple layout should be. It is rather an example of a typical temple. Numerous variations exist, especially in the choice of the subsdiary idols, deities and shrines. 

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Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry:
A Brief History

A timeline of history of the ruling dynasties of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry

The Tamil Country, including present day Tamil Nadu State and the Union Territory of Pondicherry or Puducherry, is well-known for its ancient temples. The origin of many of the temples are several centuries and perhaps millennia old. Some temples likely originated as small stone age cave temples and dolmen-like structures that have evolved into their current large forms. People have contributed to the expansion and embellishment of these structures over many centuries. Kings and merchant guilds have been at the forefront of building these temples. What we see today is the culmination of building, renovation and rebuilding that has taken place over many ages. Some of the original construction has not survived. The sanctity of these temple sites are independent of the structures that exist there today. Other temples were built in a certain era and have remained more or less unchanged. These temples were bulit by kings and other powerful people to commemorate their reigns, great military victories and sacrifices. Sepulchral temples were built for kings who died in battle. 

 

To discuss the history of temples would be to discuss the history of the region itself and would be a daunting task. The Tamil Country has a long and colourful history and it would take a book to include all the details. Our effort here is to give a brief summary to the reader of this blog site so that she/he can have a fuller understanding of the histories of the individual temples. 

 

The earliest literature in the Tamil language is the corpus of works commonly referred to as the Sangam Literature. It is a collection of poems of various lengths compiled into 36 anthologies compiled in the first half of the first millennium CE. The exact date of the compositions are not clear. They are likely much older than the dates of their compilation. The works are likely from different times with the earliest works as old as the 3rd century BCE and the latest belonging to the 3rd century CE. These poems do describe the existence of temples. The most revered temples like Palani, Thiruparankundram, Srirangam, Chidambaram and Madurai to name a few, find mention in these verses. How these temples looked like in those times is not clear. It is also of note that during this time and beyond, other religions besides Vedic Hinduism, such as the heterodox religions like Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika flourished in the Tamil country. So there must have been a multitude of religious structures. 

 

The ancient texts describe three main kingdoms in the Tamil country, the Chola, Chera and Pandya. They were known as the Mooventhar, the three kings. The Chola ruled the fertile flood plains of the Kaveri delta with their capital cities at Uraiyur ( present day Tiruchirapalli) and Pazhayarai (near Kumbakonam). The Chera controlled the spice-rich area between the Western Ghats and the Indian Ocean, present day Kerala, and the northwestern part of present day Tamil Nadu known as the Kongu. Their capitals were at Vanji ( its exact location is unclear but could have been somewhere on the western coast likely near Kodungallur - the ancient Muziris) and Karur further inland on the other side of the Western Ghats. The Pandians reigned over the southern regions and controlled the pearl-trade, with their capital at Madurai. All three kingdoms engaged in thriving trade beyond their borders. The Asokan Rock Edicts dated to about 250 BCE, mention the Chola, Chera, Pandya and Satyaputra. The Satyaputra refer to the Adhiyaman dynasty which ruled in the Kongu at that time and are believed to have been a branch of the Chera. There were other minor kingdoms too, including the Ay in the southwest and other Velir chieftains scattered around the Tamil Country. They were mainly vassals of the major kings.  The Sangam period was followed by what is called the Kalabhra interregnum. It is believed that a dynasty alien to the Tamil country ruled for a couple centuries. Often described as a dark age, the period is controversial. Some historians question its very existence. Very little known is known of the details of this period. Subsequently, two great powers emerged, the Pallava to the northeast with their territory in the Thondai Nadu around present day Chennai and the Pandya further south. Although there is evidence that the Pallava were present as early as the 4th century CE, they appear to have been in the southern part of present day Karnataka at that time. Their foray into the Tamil Country appears to have occurred in the 6th century.

 

The earliest temple structures have not survived. They were likely built of brick, wood and other perishable materials and have not endured. The earliest temples that have survived date back to the Pallava era in the northeast and the contemporary Pandya dynasty in the south. There are two ruined brick temples belonging to the pre-Pallava era, the remnants of which give us an idea of how temples of that era might have looked like. The are both brick structures. One is the ruined Murugan temple at Saluvankuppam south of Chennai, near Mahabalipuram and the other is the Vishnu temple at Veppathur near Kumbakonam.

 

The most ancient temples that have survived intact belong to the Pallava dynasty which ruled the northeast part of the Tamil country from about the 6th century to the 9th century CE. Their twin capitals were at Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram. Their earliest temples were elaborate cave temples. The most famous of them are at Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram. They are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Monument collection there. There are others dotted around the territory that they ruled. The earliest are dated to around 600 CE. They also built some temples that were not cave temples but rock-cut monolithic temples, meaning that the entire temple was sculpted out of a single stone. The Pancha Rathas at Mahabalipuram are examples of this type. There are others. The most exquisite example of this kind of temple of course exists in present day Maharashtra, the Kailasanatha temple built by the Rashtrakuta kings in the 8th century.  At the time the Pallavas were ruling the northeast of the Tamil country, the Pandians reigned in the deep south. They also built cave temples and attempted rock cut monolithic temples. The complex at Kalugumalai is an example.

 

The earliest true structural temples that have survived intact were built by the Pallavas. The most famous example and one of the most ancient is the beautiful shore temple at Mahabalipuram. It is not an active temple and is a tourist attraction today. Built around the late 7th century or early 8th CE it was built by the Pallava king Narasimha Pallavan II. Other examples are the Kailasanathar at and Vaikundaperumal temples at Kanchipuram and the Thaalagriswarar at Panamalai. There are others built by minor kings, around or shortly after this period like the ruined complex at Narthamalai known as Vijayalayacholeeswaram built by the Mutharaiyar kings in the 9th century and the Moovar Koil in Kodumbalur.

 

In the late 9th century a young prince by the name of Vijayalayan, from the Chola dynasty which at that time was a vassal of the Pallavas and was ruling a small territory around the ancient town of Pazhayarai near Kumbakonam, led a force against the Mutharaiyar, another vassal of the Pallava which was ruling at Thanjavur. Vijayalayan was victorious and expanded his territory and became a force to be reckoned with. The Pallava, whose power was in decline at that time, embraced the the rising Cholas and made them allies in their wars against the western Chalukyas further to their north and west. Vijayalayan and his son Adityan soon took advantage of this situation, wrested power from the Pallavas and made them subordinate. From this beginning they built an empire that was to take control of the whole of South India and beyond for the better part of the next 4 centuries. The deeply Saivite Chola were prolific temple builders. Although their primary focus was building temples to Siva, they were very tolerant kings and they were very generous to all sects and faiths including Vaishnavite temples. Their initial efforts were towards renovating and rebuilding existing temples into granite stone temples. Adityan was an important king in this regard. Many of the Paadal Petra Sthalams were rebuilt in stone. They called it the Kalthondu - the service of stone. Many of those temples have endured. Adityan's grandson Gangaradityan's widow Sembian Mahadevi was another great builder of stone temples. As the Chola empire grew they built new temples all over the Tamil land. The most impressive example of this effort was of course the grand project to build the Great Temple at Thanjavur which was completed by Raja Rajan in the early 11th century. Many others like the Brihadeeswarar at Gangaikondacholapuram, the Airavatesvarar at Darasuram, the Kampaheswarar at Thirubhuvanam near Kumbakonam were built over the ensuing centuries.

 

In the early 13th century, as Chola power was waning, the Pandians made a comeback and wrested control of the south and gradually all of the Tamil country except for a few pockets from the Cholas..The Pandians during this time were great patrons of temples and their construction. They built many additions to the Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple in Madurai. During these chaotic period the Hoysalas who were based in southern Karnataka controlled large swathes of the Tamil country. They renovated many temples. We can see the Hoysala influence in temples like the massive Arunalachaleswarar at Thiruvannamalai, the revered temple of Thiruvanaikkaaval and the ancient Siva temple at Thiruvasi near Trichy.

 

In the early 14th century there was a war of succession between two half-brothers who were vying for the Pandian throne, One, Sundarapandian sought the aid of the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin Khilji, in his conflict with his half-brother Veerapandian. Alauddin Khilji sent the ruthless eunuch general Malik Kafur with a large military force to Madurai. On their way they plundered and destroyed many temples. Temples like Srirangam and Chidambaram fell victim to this rampage and eventually they destroyed the Madurai Meenakshiamman. It was ransacked. The spoils were so valuable to Alauddin Khilji in his wars with his Afghan foes that he sent many more expeditions in search of plunder. Eventually a Sultanate was established at Madurai which came to be known as the Madurai Sultanate or the Sultanate of M'bar. For the next half century, the great temple at Madurai and temples across the land lay in ruins as the Sultans ruled their territories with an iron fist. The entrance ways of the Madurai temple were used as gallows for many decades. Around 1375 the Vijayanagara prince and general, Kumara Kampanna, son of Bukka I, led an expedition that liberated the Tamil country including Srirangam and Madurai from the tyranny of the Sultans.

 

The Vijayanagar kings built many temples and embellished the existing temples with their own unique style. The towering gopurams were a feature that developed during their time. In Chola times the vimanam often was taller than the gopurams. Starting in Pandian times and during the Vijayanagar and subsequent eras the gopurams became taller and started to dwarf the vimanams. Although they were predominantly Vaisnavite kings, they patronized Saivite temples also and treated them equally. The great temple at Chidambaram was given a brand new towering gopuram during the visit of the great Vijayanagar emperor Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century.

 

During the Vijayanagar period, the Tamil country was ruled by Telugu speaking governors appointed by the emperor and were called Nayaks or Nayakkar in the Tamil country. There were Nayakkars in Madurai, Thanjavur and Senji. With the decline of the Vijayanagar empire towards the end of the 16th century especially after their defeat at the hands of the Sultanates at the battle of Talikota in 1565, the Nayakkans became independent kings of their own accord. The Madurai Nayakkar was the most powerful of these and they were instrumental in rebuilding many temples. They embellished temples both Vaisnavite and Saivite with elaborate new projects, Towering gopurams and multi-pillared Mandapams were built. Beautiful and intricate granites sculptures were created. The gopurams and vimanams were adorned with multicoloured life-like stucco images. The walls and ceilings were decorated with colourful paintings and murals. The temple as we know it today evolved fully during this period.

 

When the Nayakkar, especially the Madurai Nayakkar dynasty ended in the early to mid -18th century, their territories fell into the hands of the Marathas of Thanjavur, the Nawab of Arcot who was a vassal of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the minor kingdoms of Ramnad and Pudukottai. The Marathas patronized temples in the Thanjavur area and revamped a number of them. The Pudukottai and Ramnad kings contributed to the upkeep and rebuilding of many temples in their areas of control. In the very south some areas were under the Travancore kings and they have left their mark there.

 

With the advent of the European colonial powers the temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry suffered again. Many temples were plundered and destroyed especially on the coasts. As the two main European powers established themselves, they did not indulge in religiously motivated destruction but neglected their upkeep. Some temples like the Great Temple at Thanjavur were used as a barracks and armouries by British soldiers for some decades. But during the latter years of colonial rule the colonial powers were more considerate. The French especially participated in the reconstruction of many temples in the areas they controlled around Pondicherry. During this time, certain mercantile communities like the Nattukkottai Chettiar contributed immensely towards the maintenance of many temples.

 

The above is but a brief summary and we left out many details to keep the summary short. The reader should also keep in mind that history is a subject that evolves over time as new information comes to light and old information is proven wrong. So we will revise this post from time to time.

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Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry: Salient Features - Iconography, Iconology and Architecture

Photos of architectural and scultural elements of a temple in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry

These ancient temples which are built according to a certain set of codes and rules, have many features in common. The structural elements, idols, sculptures, layout and other aspects have deep meaning and symbolism. Some of them are repeated in many different temples with many interesting variations. Despite the common themes, these temples also differ in many ways and each one is a unique masterpiece. Knowing the common elements and their symbolism helps the visitor appreciate the thoughts, ideas and meticulous planning that have gone in to building these works of sacred art. We will explore each of these features of the South Indian temple in this post, moving from the outside of the temple towards its core and then exploring other associated features .

  1. External Walls: Most large temples are enclosed by multiple walls with the most external walls being the tallest. They are often very plain and built of granite blocks. In some others they are painted in red and white alternating vertical stripes. Not all temples have this pattern. The more ancient temples do not have this and it might be a relatively new phenomenon . Although there are attempts to find philosophical meaning to this practice, it seems more a tradition than anything else. Perhaps it was a way of defining the outside walls of a temple to passersby. The top of these walls are often adorned with sculptures. In many Sivan temples you will find a series of Nandhis.

  2. Gopurams: These towering structures are the most prominent features of the Dravidian style of temples that are prevalent in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Visible for miles around, they are the first structures that we notice when approaching a temple. Initially, relatively small structures, they have increased in height since the 12th century onwards, Over the ages they have evolved into the tall structures that we see today. There are many variations in style and height. They are generally built over the entrances in the four cardinal directions with the one over the main entrance, the tallest and usually called the rajagopuram. If there are multiple enclosures there will be a set of gopurams at the entrance of each enclosure with their height diminishing as we approach the sanctum. The gopurams are often made of brick and wood and adorned with stucco figurines depicting stories from Hindu mythology. As these are perishable materials, these structures are prone to damage unless cared for constantly. They are rebuilt periodically when the damage is too great. Some of the gopurams are painted white, while some others are given a pastel shade. Some have figurines that are colourfully painted in vibrant colours. This practice appears to be a later development and likely originated in the Nayakkan period. In some temples the gopurams are quite plain and are devoid of any figures.

  3. Entrances or Vayil: These entrances of the temples in all four directions are usually built of granite or other sturdy material and have sculptures and inscriptions on them. They often form the base for the gopuram above. Some do not have a significant gopuram and are called a mottai gopura vaasal.

  4. Nadai or Doors: These are doors at the entrances that are shut when the temple closes during the afternoon or at night. They are opened at dawn and are closed shut at midday to open again in the afternoon around 4 pm and remain open till late at night when the temple closes. They are usually wooden structures with metal reinforcements and are sometimes fortified.

  5. Prakarams or Circumambulatory Enclosures: Many temples have a series of walls and entrances leading to the sanctum. They thus form a series of enclosures between walls and these are called prakarams. it is customary to circumambulate the temple along these pathways in a clockwise direction, although in some temples and on certain days the circumambulation takes an elaborate course. These prakarams are are home to various subsidiary shrines and idols, processional idols and vehicles, administrative areas, storage rooms. kitchen, library etc. The prakarams symbolize the many layers of the universe.

  6. Mandapams: The mandapams are halls inside the temple. the large hall that you encounter at the entrance of the temple, where the Kodimaram, the balipeedam and the Vaahanam are situated is often called the Mahamandapam or the Muhamandapam. Other mandapams can be in the axis of the entry to the temple or in the prakarams. Some are additions in later years like the 1000 pillared halls from the Nayakkan period. These have many ornately carved pillars. They are used for various functions including weddings, performances etc. They also have subsidiary shrines.

  7. Kodimaram or Dwajasthambam: This is the first structure we encounter as we enter the temple. It is the flagstaff. It is usually a metal or stone structure that is ornately designed. It is used to hoist a flag on special days.

  8. Balipeedam: The Balipeedam is literally a sacrificial pedestal. It is used in certain rituals. As devotees move towards the sanctum they should sacrifice their egos and expectations here.

  9. Vaahanam or Vehicle: In Sivan temples this is the Nandhi. The sculpture of the sacred bull that is Siva's vehicle comes in various shapes and sizes. The Nandhi usually faces the sanctum. In the occasional temple it can also face the entrance. In Vishnu temples the Vaahanam is the Garuda. Sometimes the vaahanam sits in a mandapam built for it.

  10. Dwarapaalakar: These are the two guardian deities on either side of the entrance to the Arthamandapam. They are imposing figures and sometimes have a fierce look.

  11. Arthamandapam: This is the mandapam immediately in front of the sanctum sanctorum or the Karuvarai/Garbagriham. It is usually the last chamber the general public is allowed in. It is the ante-chamber of the karuvarai.

  12. Karuvarai or Garbagriham: This is the sanctum sanctorum and houses the primary idol. In Vishnu temples there are idols of the various avatars of Lord Vishnu in a lying, standing or sitting posture. In Sivan temples it is usually a Sivalingam. This usually a square or rectangular chamber. It is quite small and there is limited space only for the priest to do his pooja. Sometimes this chamber can be circular or apsidal.

  13. Vimanam: The vimanam is the tower that is built over the karuvarai. It also comes in various interesting shapes and sizes. There are regional as well as historical differences. Certain vimanams were popular in certain periods in time and in certain places. They started out as small structures with a single layer but have evolved over time into very elaborate creations with multiple layers and interesting adornments. Like the gopurams they are also often decorated with interesting stucco images from Hindu mythology and likely became popular in Nayakkan times. The vimanam historically became larger and taller and reached its peak during the height of Chola power with the one at the Big Temple at Thanjavur, becoming one of the tallest ever built. In later times, from the late 12th century onwards, the gopurams grew gradually taller and dwarfed the vimanams in most temples. They differ in shape and design too. The simplest are square and pyramidal. Some are cupola or dome shaped. There are rare ones like the Ashtanga Vimanam which have eight sides. The Thoonganai Maadam or Gajaprishta Vimanam popular in the Thondai Nadu in the late Chola period, is named after an elephant's back which it resembles. It is built over an apsidal sanctum sanctorum

  14. Koshta Idols: In the recesses on the outer walls of the Karuvarai, several idols are found. Commonly seen idols here in Sivan temples are Dhakshinamoorthy, Lingothbavar, Durga, Perumal etc.

  15. Subsidiary Shrines: Apart from the primary or presiding deity, there are other deities within the temple complex. The larger ones are usually found in the outer prakarams. There is usually a Ganesha shrine in the far right corner and a Murugan sannithy in the far left corner as you face the temple. There is usually an Amman or Goddess shrine in the complex and it is smaller and is either parallel to the primary shrine, either to the left or right or at right angles to it facing the Mahamandapam.

  16. Processional Idols or Uthsavamoorthy: These are metal (usually bronze) idols and are used during festivals. They are carried around the temple or in the surrounding streets of the town in procession.

  17. The Ther or Chariot: These are large wooden structures with wheels that are decorated and used to carry the processional idols around the temple and on city streets. They are pulled by a set of ropes that devotees will grasp to move the chariot or car.

  18. Theertham: Every temple has one or more waterbodies associated with it. These can be a nearby ocean, lake, river or other natural waterbody. Very often there is a temple tank or pond within the complex. There are a series of steps leading down to the water's edge and taking a dip in the waters are part of the worship ritual.

  19. Thalavirutcham or Temple Tree: The temple usually has a tree associated with it. It is usually found in one corner of the temple premises and is cared for and worshipped. There are a wide variety of trees that are used in this manner. Some of the trees are very old.

  20. Temple Animals: Many temples have elephants and cows etc.. These are resident animals that participate in the everyday functioning of the temple. There is a Goshala or cattle-shed where cows and bulls are fed and cared for.

 

This is a brief overview for the reader to appreciate the many symbolic aspects of a temple in Tamil Nadu or Pondicherry

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Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry: An Introduction to Sacred Idols 

Photos of sacred idols in the temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry

Hindu temples usually have a primary or principal deity enshrined in the garbagriham, often called the presiding murthy, and many other idols spread throughout the temple. In Sivan temples the presiding deity is often but not always a form of the Sivalingam. Other idols of Siva and sometimes an empty space to emphasize the formlessness of the Lord are also consecrated. In Vaisnavite temples various poses of Lord Vishnu and his many avatars are installed as the presiding deity. In other temples, idols of the Goddess, Ganesha or Murugan are the primary idol. Numerous other idols are found in various parts of the temples. These can be different forms of the presiding deity or other deities. Many idols are installed in the mandapams and prakarams of the temples. Some are found in various niches and others have their own subsidiary shrines. The idols installed in the outer wall (koshta) of the garbagriham are known as the koshta idols. While many diols are made of stone, some are fashioned out of other material such as metal, stucco or wood. The processional idols are ones that are taken in procession by palanquin or a chariot during various festivals. They are the utsavamurthys and are stored in the prakarams. They are usually ancient bronzes and have holes at the base to secure them when they are carried around.  Besides deities, there are also other sculptures in temples commemorating people such as religious figures like the Nayanmar or Aalwar and benefactors including royalty and citizens. 

 

  1. Sivalingam: The Sivalingam is commonly used as the idol of choice in Sivan temples as a symbol of Lord Siva and is installed as the primary deity. Usually a short cylindrical structure made of stone it is sometimes made of other material like earth, sand or metal. In Saivite tradition it is an attempt to give form to Lord Shiva who is formless and amorphous. It has deep philosophical meaning. European scholars in the nineteenth century thought that it was a phallic symbol. This was a misinterpretation by people with little knowledge of the religion and has stuck in the popular imagination especially in the West, with a certain degree of malicious intent. It is not characterized as such in any Saivite literature and no practising Saivite has any such illusion. Apart from the primary idol, numerous other types of Sivalingam are found in the outer hall ways of the prakarams and on the vimanam and gopurams in many Sivan temples.

  2. Lingothbavar: A popular idol often found externally on the back wall of the Garbagriham as a koshta idol, this is a representation of Siva. It recalls the story of the legend where Lord Siva bade Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma to find the base and the top of the column of fire he manifested as at Thiruvannamalai. It shows a human-like form of the Lord emerging out of a Sivalingam. It was popular in temples built in the Chola era. 

  3. Dakshinamurty: This is a form of Lord Shiva as the great teacher or guru. Depicted seated with his left his left foot resting on his right knee, he is often seen with long matted locks of hair. He is usually a koshta idol found on the south-facing wall of the garbagriham. Dakshina means south in Sanskrit  The Lord in this forms symbolizes divine knowledge, wisdom and the arts. He is sometimes shown with a veena.

  4. Durga: This form of the Goddess often seen as a koshta idol in Sivan temples, depicts the Goddess as a protectress and destroyer of evil. It is a martial form.

  5. Brahma: For various reasons set forth in many legends, Lord Brahma rarely or never has temples dedicated to him He is often seen as a koshta idol with three heads. He lost one of his heads according to a legend.  

  6. Perumal: Most Sivan temples have various idols of Lord Vishnu spread throughout the temple. A standing pose of Lord Vishnu is often found as a koshta idol.

  7. Ganesha or Pillaiyar:  The popular Lord Vinayakar is often given a subsidiary shrine of his own. In most temples, the shrine for Ganesha is found at the far left corner of the inner prakaram as you face the temple. Many forms exist. There is almost always an idol of Lord Ganesha somewhere near the entrance as it is customary to worship him first as you enter the temple. He is also often seen as a koshta idol.

  8. Murugan or Subramaniyar: Lord Murugan is a very popular deity and he is usually given a shrine of his own at the far right corner of the inner prakaram as you enter the temple. Images of Lord murugan can be seen elsewhere in the temple too.

  9. Amman: The Goddess in her various manifestations can be seen in many parts of the temple. In most temples she has a shrine of her own. The Amman shrine is given an equal stature to the primary deity and sometimes the Amman’s importance exceeds that of the presiding deity and she becomes the primary deity. The Amman shrine is either parallel to the Lord’s shrine either to the left or right or situated perpendicular to the main shrine and facing the mahamandapam. In some temples it is customary to pay homage to the Goddess first before worshipping the Lord in his primary shrine. In Vishnu temples there are two shrines for each of Lord Vishnu’s consorts Sridevi and Boodevi.

  10. Ardhanareeswarar: This idol is half male and half female and denotes the unity of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati as a single deity. It means that the Lord is neither male nor female but both.

  11. Bikshaadanar: This form depicts the Lord as a scantily clad idol. Here he is worshipped as a mendicant or beggar. 

  12. Bhairavar or Kaala Bhairavar: This is a fierce form of Shiva, He is often depicted with a dog as his vaahanam and this form is meant to strike fear in evil doers. He often has a shrine of his own in most Sivan temples. 

  13. Somaskander: The Somaskander idol set has been popular since Pallava times. It consists of Lord Siva and Goddess Parvati in a seated position besides each other with a small idol of Lord Murugan between them. It is important in the iconology of the Thiyagaraja belief system within Saivism.

  14. Umamaheswarar:  This twin idol is that of Lord Siva and Goddess Parvati standing beside each other. 

  15. Chandikeshwarar: The idol of Chandikeshwarar is often given a small shrine right beside and outside the sanctum sanctorum. He is a fearsome idol and is the protector of the temple. His origin is obscure. Some believe that he was one of the Nayanmar and an ardent devotee. Others believe that he is one of the many manifestations of the Lord himself. Customs vary in his worship. Some visit the Chandikeshwarar shrine to get his permission before worshipping the Lord in the sanctum. Others stop by his shrine during the clockwise circumambulation of the sanctum. He is often found at the 3 o’clock position. Some clap their hands in front of shrine. This is apparently to show that nothing is being stolen from the temple. In many temples and regions, this practice is frowned upon and discouraged.

  16. The Navagraha shrine: There is a corner shrine in most temples where the nine celestial bodies are enshrined and worshipped. Worshippers circumambulate this shrine. It appears to be a later development as the most ancient temples do not have this. Some temples have individual idols for the planetary bodies in one of the prakarams. Some temples like Navagraha temples are dedicated to a celestial body and there is a special subsidiary shrine for that particular planetary deity while Shiva remains the primary deity in the sanctum sanctorum.

  17. The Saptha Kannis or Saptamatrikas: Often found in one of the outer prakarams, this set of 7 idols of the Goddess depict different forms of her. They are Brahmi, Maheshwari, Kowmaari, Vaishnavi, Vaaraaki, Indraani and Chamundi.

  18. Naga Idols: Spread throughout the temple, especially in the outer prakarams and around trees, you often see idols of Naga or the cobra with a spread hood. 

  19. Saints: Many Sivan temples have a row of idols in the outer prakaram commemorating the 63 Nayanmar of Tamil Saivism, A special place and more prominence is given to the four Naalvar or Samaya Kuravars - Thirugnasampanthar, Thirunavukkarasar, Sundaramurthy Nayanar and Manikkavasagar. In Vaishnavite temples there are idols of the Aalwar and they are venerated.

  20. Lingams: In Saivite temples there are also a series of secondary Sivalingams often found in one of the outer prakarams or in subsidy shrines. This is apart from the main Sivalingam in the sanctum sanctorum.  They are often donated or commissioned my royalty and the benefactors in later years. 

  21. Vaahanam:  Nandi the bull vehicle of Lord Siva is revered as Lord Nandikeswarar.  A sculpture of Nandi is seen in front of the sanctum of Sivan temples. Lord Garuda the vaahanam of Lord Vishnu has similar importance in temples dedicated to Lord Vishnu.

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These are but a few of the common idols seen temples. There are many others that are not common and sometimes can be unique to a region or a temple. 

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Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry:  The Role of Temples 

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People often ask why the kings and people of India built so many temples and in such grand scale and style There were several reasons why temples were built in ancient times, and they continue to play interesting and sometimes vital roles in people’s lives.

 

1.      First and foremost, the temples were and continue to be places of worship. This is where people have come to pay homage to their deities for hundreds and perhaps thousands of years. These were and continue to be refuges and sanctuaries from the travails of everyday life. People find peace here. Thus, they gave freely to the building and upkeep of these temples. The origin of some temples is quite ancient and obscure.

2.      Temples have been sites of pilgrimage for people for many centuries. People have made pilgrimages to various temples often to fulfill a vow. They promoted travel in many instances.

3.      Kings and other powerful and wealthy people built temples for the welfare of the people and for their own spiritual needs. Royal dynasties believed that building temples, consecrating them and maintaining them by providing funds for the Agamic rituals to be performed to perfection brought prosperity to themselves and the people and victory over their enemies and competitors.

4.      Temples were also places of knowledge transfer. Age old traditions, customs, beliefs and stories were imparted to a younger generation here.  Even today you can often see older folks telling stories from the Puranas and Ithikasas to young audiences who listen in rapt attention.

5.      The temples reflect the architecture of various periods in history. Some are masterpieces and show case the building skills of the stonemasons and sculptors who built them. They are engineering marvels.

6.      They are also repositories of art.  These temples are full of sculptures and paintings of deities and often depict stories from the Puranas.  A lot of the paintings and murals are decaying, and some have been completely lost. The sculptures are made of stone, stucco and metal. The Cholas specialized in bronze idols.

7.      They also promoted music, drama and dance.  They have played an important role in preserving the culture of the people. Most temples have halls and stages for performances. There were resident dancers and musicians. Poojas are often conducted to the accompaniment of musical instruments. The Odhuvaar recited the Panniru Thirumurai in the correct manner. The various poses of the Bharatha Natyam are depicted in sculpture in many temples.

8.      The temples also inspired a large quantity of religious literature. The Pathikams of the Thevaram celebrated a total of 276 ancient Sivan temples. The Naalayira Divya Prabantham praise the 108 Divya Desam Vishnu temples. Many literary works have been preserved in temples as palm leaf manuscripts.

9.      The temples also offer a historical record of the land, its people and their rulers. The numerous inscriptions on walls and free-standing stones give us a glimpse into the lives of people from the period and help us piece together the history of various dynasties that ruled this land. There are also palm leaf scrolls and copper plates that record historical events which are stored in temples.

10.  Temples have sometimes been built by kings to celebrate a great victory or conquest. The great temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram was built by Rajendran I to commemorate the great victories of the Chola army all the way to the Ganga. Sometimes they were built to commemorate a dead king or general. They are sepulchral temples. Often, they were kings who fell in battle. The beautiful temple built for Arinjaya Cholan (Rajarajan’s grandfather) at Melpadi near Vellore is a good example.  

11.  Temples have also served as a platform to keep the poor and hungry fed in times of need. They continue to serve this purpose even today when free meals are served. Various benefactors provide the funds. It is called Annadhanam. They have thus been involved in the social welfare of the people. There is an ancient temple near Kanchipuram which shows evidence of once serving as a hospital in Cholan times. They were charitable institutions.

12.  The temples have also been economic hubs providing a livelihood for various trades including, sculptors, carpenters, artists, hawkers, vendors, shopkeepers, priests, singers, musicians etc. There is a whole economic ecosystem that revolves around these temples. In ancient times and less so in modern times, temples also owned a large amount of property both commercial and agricultural, that were donated to them. Many people depended on these properties for their livelihoods as tenants and lease holders.

13.  Temples have also been places where important life events take place such as marriage rituals, anniversaries and renewing of marital rituals.

14.  During festivals like the annual pulling of the chariot around the temple, the Ther festival, the temple and its surroundings transformed into a grand bazaar, a fair and a place for people to shop, eat and have fun.

15.  Temples were also places where prospective brides and grooms saw each other for the first time.

16.  In times of scarcity temples served as granaries and storehouses of food. In many temples the seed paddy or rice was stored at temples for planting in the next season.

17.   In times of war, they were places of refuge for the population. Some temples were fortified for this reason. The Kailasanathar temple at Tharamangalam in Salem comes to mind in this respect.

18.  Temples have also been places where political discourse took place. The Vaikuntha Perumal Temple in Uthiramerur has 10th century inscriptions describing the functioning of a democratically elected 30 member Sabha or council to run the village affairs.

 

So, the temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry have been central to the lives of the people and have had a myriad of functions. They are in many ways microcosms of the culture of the people of these lands.

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The Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry: Protection, Preservation, Renovation and Reconstruction

The temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry and the sites where they are situated are ancient and date back millennia. Given the great antiquity of a lot of these temples, the existing structures are very old. They are in danger of gradual disintegration and eventual destruction. Although some of the structures are built of durable material such as granite and other stone, some others are made of perishable material such as wood and stucco. Even granite and metal structures and idols are prone to erosion and degradation. The sites themselves, apart from the structures there in, are in danger of encroachment by an ever expanding population and unscrupulous elements with political backing  So the task of preserving these treasures for a future generation is a challenging and difficult one. It is interesting to explore the issues around this very important issue.

 

These temples should be preserved and protected not for spiritual and religious reasons alone but also because they are the repositories of vast numbers of artifacts of cultural and historical value. Ancient sculptures, bronze idols, stone inscriptions, palm leaf manuscripts, copper plate inscriptions, etc., are found in these temples and are of immense value to historians, admirers of art and heritage enthusiasts. Some of the temples are veritable museums and the artifacts that they house are invaluable. 

 

Often the ardent devotee doesn’t much care for the artistic and architectural elements. For them the sanctity of the temple and its divine attributes are more important. The importance of the site itself is more significant than any superficial structures that exist there. It reflects the renunciation that is central in Hinduism and especially so in the worship of Shiva that de-emphasizes the value of material things. The proper maintenance of the sanctity of the moorthy and the temple by following agamic rituals according to tradition and reenergizing the mystic powers of the deity by periodic renewal such as the Maha Kumbabishekam or Kudamulukku are of ultimate importance. The Maha Kumbabishekam should be performed every 12 years and involves the repair and renovation of the physical structures and re-consecration of the deities. These rituals are what keep a temple alive. Or else they become just structures and sites devoid of much religious or spiritual significance.They literally die.

 

To keep theses temples alive they need proper maintenance and administration. Historically temples were constructed, consecrated and maintained by royal patronage with active involvement of the people. Many dynasties throughout history including Pallava, Chola, Chera and Pandyan kings and emperors engaged in this noble endeavour. The temples owned a vast amount of land, both agricultural and commercial, donated to them by the kings and other wealthy benefactors. In medieval times, whole villages and the revenue gathered from them were donated to temples. They also had other forms of wealth including jewels, gold and money donated to them. The income generated from these sources were used to maintain the temple. There was royal or imperial oversight. In colonial times, the system was severely disrupted. Many colonial administrators neglected the proper maintenance of these temples. The colonial administration targeted these temples for tax revenue. The temple lands and properties were heavily taxed. At times of strife and war they were used as armouries and military encampments. Many temples fell in to disrepair.  The proper rituals were not performed and many lost their sanctity. Some local elements embezzled the temple assets and encroached the temple lands. Some temples were taken over by unscrupulous elements and even turned into dens of vice. Citing these irregularities, the colonial the British administration took over the supervision of all temples in the areas they controlled. By a series of legal amendments and the post-independence HR and CE Act of 1959, all revenue generating temples in Tamil Nadu except a very few became the sole properties of the Government of Tamil Nadu. They are administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the state government. A similar situation exists in Pondicherry. They are responsible for the maintenance and functioning of these temples. Given the very large number of temples and the bureaucratic nature of the government agency, the preservation of these temples are certainly not ideal. 

 

Some of the temples that are not active are taken over by the Archaeological Survey of India or ASI which is an agency of the Indian Central Government. The temples under its care are of immense artistic and architectural importance and are treated as monuments of national importance. Given the wide scope of the agency which spans the entire country and the vast number of sites under its control, the maintenance is not ideal but creditable.  Some other temples that are not active are under the control of the Department of Archaeology the Government of Tamil Nadu.

 

The challenges to the preservation of the temples are many. They include the following:

 

  1. Natural elements: The outer structures of the temples are exposed to the elements including rain, wind and the sun. Even granite structures are prone to erosion and other damage. Structures and sculptures, especially those that adorn gopurams and vimanams are prone to fading and disintegration. Many are made of stucco which is not very durable.They have to be maintained or renewed periodically. Another source of damage is from seeds of shrubs often carried in bird droppings and the wind, that end up in nooks and crevices and germinate. The plants and their roots can be very destructive to the structures. Most temples do not have the resources to weed out these plants early.

  2. Human greed: Encroachment by people to steal temples lands and property has always been a problem and continues to be an issue. Temples that were quite large have now shrunken to mere shadows of their original grandeur due to this menace. Embezzlement of temple funds, theft and trafficking of idols are also real problems.

  3. Wilful destruction: Although this was a problem in the past during periods of strife especially during colonial wars, it is not a major problem these days. But isolated incidents do occur, often motivated by greed, religious fanaticism and political expediency. Expansion of infrastructure including roads and highways also lead to destruction of temples. Damming of rivers have led to inundation of some temples.

  4. Careless renovation: Well-meaning folks sometimes engage in renovation of temples without proper guidance from experts. This can lead to accidental and unintentional destruction of ancient structures, art and inscriptions. However on the bright side, such activity keeps the culture of the temples alive. The skill and craftsmanship involved in repairing these temples still exist in these communities. 

 

Despite these challenges, it is of utmost importance that these temples and the art and architecture that they contain be preserved for future generations. This is the accumulated cultural wealth of generations of people who inhabited this land. The temples are part of the cultural identity of the people and have to be preserved.

 

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The Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry: Ownership, Control and Administration

Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are home to several thousands of ancient temples. Contrary to popular belief outside of Tamil Nadu and India, most of these temples are owned and administered by the State Government of Tamil Nadu and a similar situation exists in Pondicherry and other South India states. In Tamil Nadu, almost all temples are the property of the powerful Hindu Religious and Cultural Endowments Department (HR and CE). A few nonfunctioning or partially active temples are owned and administered by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) which is an agency of the Indian Central Government. Very few are owned by private entities.

 

The fact that the vast majority of these temples are owned by the government and controlled closely is a very controversial issue. The government is secular according to the Indian constitution and in theory should not be involved in religious affairs. The temples are Hindu religious institutions after all and were built hundreds of years ago to function as such. Many believers in Hinduism fume about this apparent contraindication. They point out that other religions are not subject to this ignominy. To add insult to injury, the political parties that control the government in Tamil Nadu have had an ideology that is not supportive of Hinduism. They make frequent pronouncements that their goal is to eradicate the religion as a policy goal. The Dravidian Movement that has had political sway in Tamil Nadu over the last 70 odd years has atheism as one of its central ideologies, but has directed most of its antagonism against the Hindu religion alone. Their main focus has been the Brahmin community and the control of temples is seen as a means of bringing about social justice reforms and lessening Brahmin domination of temple affairs .

 

The HR and CE is a highly bureaucratic organization directly responsible to the state government and its political masters. It has a government appointed Commissioner and a hierarchical army of other bureaucrats including Deputy Commissioners, Assistant Commissioners, Executive Officers, Auditors, Clerks, etc. Some of these officials are not followers of the Hindu faith and have no stake in the welfare of the temples. They control the temples with an iron fist. Even minor issues arising in temples, cannot be dealt with without the permission of the HR and CE. The Department has sprawling premises in the Nungambakkam area of Chennai that is several city blocks in length. Each temple has a board of trustees and a managing trustee. Most temples have 3-5 trustees. These political appointments are subject to direct patronage by the ruling party. This kind of administrative set up leads to bureaucratic inefficiency and corruption.

 

The HR and CE controls 36,356 temples, 56 mutts or religious orders, 57 temples belonging to them and other Hindu institutions under its jurisdiction. Given this large number of properties and the bureaucratic nature of its administration, the HR and CE functions in a very inefficient manner. The upkeep of temples is poor. Things do not get done in a timely fashion, leading to decay and damage. Temple priests do not get paid enough or on time. Even minor repairs need approval by a government department machinery that is inherently slow. There is bureaucratic inertia. Many temples have become inactive and sometimes abandoned.

 

The temples have been endowed with vast wealth over the centuries by kings, wealthy merchants and the public. When these temples were built they were gifted land and money to keep them active forever. Over time much of this wealth has disappeared, often embezzled by various actors. What remains is being actively stolen according to some sources. Temple lands are encroached upon and appropriated by people with political muscle. Temples also have income from donations of devotees as well as rental income from agricultural and commercial properties they own. These funds are also prone to fraud. Moreover the government uses the temples to indirectly tax the temple goers. It is a source of income for the government. Various fees including rapid entry fees and a variety of pooja fees are designed to increase the income of the temples which ultimately reaches the government. The HR and CE charges a percentage of this money as administrative fees to run its affairs. What is left is managed by the government, but the spending is not very transparent. Various schemes are funded that do not always directly benefit the temple. When devotees give money to a temple, they likely want that money to be spent on the upkeep of the temple and not to fund social welfare schemes of the government for which the temples do not get credit, but the government does. One of the biggest alleged scams is the awarding of contracts for renovation and repair as well as other services. These lucrative contracts are awarded often without tender to political cronies who deliver substandard or shoddy work. There is very little accountability.

 

The government control of temples has in recent years extended not only to the everyday functioning of the temples but also to the nature of worship. In its purported efforts to bring social justice to the religion, the government interferes with rituals which have been in place for millennia and are integral to religious practices. There might be discriminatory practices in temples and there sure have been many instances of such over the years. Certainly there is a lot of room for reform and renewal.  But it is the belief of many that such change should come from within the religion and not dictated to by the government.

 

Many wonder how the temples of Tamil Nadu ended up under government control.  It is a long and complex story. In ancient times the temples were administered by local people with royal supervision and control. The Pallava, Chola, Pandya, Vijayanagara, Nayakkan kings who built and maintained these temples were ardent believers of the Hindu faith and appear to have exercised strict supervision of these temples. When the British colonialists arrived, these temples came under the purview of the British East India Company. Initially many temples were desecrated and used as armouries and barracks for soldiers. But over time, the East India Company became interested in the vast wealth of these temples and taxed them for profit. They in fact became custodians of the temples and took on the supervisory role of the ancient kings. Subsequently there was a push from Christian missionaries that the Company should get out of the business of administering Hindu temples. Under pressure from the British Parliament, the East India Company withdrew from managing temples in 1833. It is alleged that what ensued was very chaotic. Many temples fell into private hands. Trustees were accused of perpetrating fraud of various kinds including appropriating temple lands and embezzling funds. Under pressure from Hindu leaders, the British government then enacted the Religious Endowments Act of 1863 that provided for local committees to run temples. Despite that it was alleged that rampant corruption and theft took place. Many temples fell into disrepair. Some became dens of vice it was alleged. Although the more serious allegations likely were few, all temples were maligned. It set the stage for serious government intervention. In 1927, while India was still a British colony, the democratically elected government of the Madras Presidency enacted the Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act, which created a board of commissioners to supervise the administration of temples. The party in power was the Justice Party which was dominated by non-Brahmin higher caste Hindus who detested the Brahmins and their perceived favoured treatment by British authorities. The initial effort was to create a supervisory body. But it was the proverbial camel with the nose in the tent. What followed over the next several decades and beyond India’s independence from Britain, was the gradual erosion of temple independence and more government control and ownership. Successive legislation ensured that. In 1951, the elected government of Madras State  (forerunner of Tamil Nadu State as well as Andhra Pradesh and parts of Karnataka and Kerala States) passed an act called the Madras Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act of 1951 which essentially brought all Hindu temples and related organizations under government control. This was challenged in the Supreme Court of India in 1954, on the basis that the state did not have the right to interfere.  In the judgment in the Shirur Mutt Case, the courts held that while the state cannot dictate religious practices, it could control the secular activities of temples. Subsequent legislation in 1959,  gave birth to new a HR and CE Act that negated the objections of the Supreme Court and gave total control of the temples to the state. In 1960 the Government of India appointed a commission to study the issue under the chairmanship of the esteemed statesman C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyer.  The commission concluded that the temples were better off under government control rather than private ownership. After the Dravidian parties came to power in the late 1960s and onwards, the legislation was continuously tweaked to give the state control not only over the administration and finances of the temples but also their religious rites and practices.

 

The state that intervened in the running of temples to protect them now stands accused of exploiting them financially and politically. There is a movement to free temples from government control. Several Brahmin groups, the Hindu-centric BJP, other Hindu organizations and individuals have spearheaded this push to make temples function independently of the government. Critics point out that freeing temples from government control might expose them to takeover by corrupt private entities and individuals who in turn might mismanage the temples and embezzle their funds. In the absence of a church or other overarching organization to guide it, the Hindu religion does not have the means to manage these temples without the help of the government they point out. Some argue that  democratically elected governments after all are the legitimate owners of the temples on behalf of the people who elected them. This thinking is incorrect as the people who participate in these elections are not Hindus alone but the general population which includes people of different faiths and ideologies.  Others argue that if given the opportunity the Hindu population would come with an organization that would care for the temples. But there are no guarantees that that would happen.

 

One of the few temples and perhaps the only major temple that is managed independently of the government is the Chidambaram temple. It is the holiest Sivan temple for Saivite Tamil people. It is controlled by a community of hereditary Brahmin priests called the Dikshitar. They have been present at Chidambaram for several centuries and were highly regarded by the ancient kings and well looked after. Today they own the temple. The Tamil Nadu government continues to try and gain control of Chidambaram under the provisions of ther HR and CE Act. The Supreme Court has ruled that the Dikshitar are the rightful owners as they define themselves as a denomination within Saivite Hinduism. Denominational temples are exempted from control by the HR and CE.  So for now the Dikshitar get to control the temple. The Tamil Nadu Government makes frequent pronouncements that they will appeal the Supreme Court ruling and has vowed to take over control. Critics of the HR and CE point to Chidambaram as a model for administration of temples by non-governmental actors, if they are ever freed from control by the HR and CE. But is control by the Dikshitar right and is it ideal? The Dikshitar neither built these temples nor were they given the right to own it by anyone. The holiest Sivan temple for Saivite Tamils should be owned and administered by an institution that is representative of that larger community. After all the temple was built by kings who used funds taxed from the Hindu population of that time and many communities like the mercantile Nattukkottai Chettiar have made immense contributions. Moreover, is the administration of Chidambaram exemplary? It is not. Critics point to the decay of a heritage treasure built over millennia  due to lack of maintenance. The Dikshitar apparently lack the funds to maintain it.  Others accuse them of using the funds of the temple for their personal and private benefit. There is no transparency in the finances of the temple. This is not ideal either. There are some positives like the lack of entry fees and other service fees callously designed by the HR and CE solely to generate money. Chidambaram does not charge such entry fees. The HR and CE and the Tamil Nadu Government run temples like businesses. But the Dikshitar raise funds in other ways. Temple goers often complain about the way the Dikshitar badger people for donations in a very insistent manner spoiling the whole temple experience for many. Again there is no guarantee that most of the donated money will be used for the upkeep of the temp[e.

 

Some of the temples including many famous ones like The Big Temple at Thanjavur, the Airavateeswarar Temple at Dharasuram, the Brihadeeswarar at Gangaikondacholapuram, the Kailasanathar at Kanchipuram and a number of lesser known temples are controlled by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI) which is an agency of the Indian central government. It is a colonial era institution and has thousands of sites across India under it care. Although beset by the same bureaucratic inertia that is common to all government institutions, the ASI actually does a decent job in maintaining temples that it owns. But the sheer number of properties under its wings is overwhelming. The temples under the control of the ASI are either inactive or only minimally active. They are declared monuments of national importance for their architectural and historic importance. If the majority of the temples in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry become inactive, the ASI cannot look after them all. They would perish.

 

So who should own and administer the temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry? The status quo does not seem fair. Why should the government  control institutions that are religious in nature?  In this case the political parties that control the government are ideologically opposed to the religion. It is like asking wolves to take care of the sheep. Now the counter argument is that if not the government, who else is capable of looking after such large numbers of temples. Hinduism does not have a church or other overarching institutions. If the temples were to fall into private hands they may encounter the same corruption. There is no guarantee that private entities or individuals will not be as corrupt or worse than government officials and politicians. There are advantages in administering all the temples under the supervision of a single organization but ideally that organization should be a not for profit, non governmental institution that is  at arms length from the  government of the day but with oversight by the government and accountable to it. The HR and CE should withdraw from direct ownership of the temples and their micromanagement. But it should retain a supervisory role and the right to audit the finances of temples. Everyday management of the temples should be handed over to locally elected committees with representation that reflects that community. A not for profit, non governmental  statewide  organization that represents the interests of Hindu temples and the religion should be created that can serve as another layer of supervision and accountability. This organization should be accountable to the HR and CE as well as individual temples. It should function without any political interference. The funding for such an organization can easily be found from the income of temples. The membership of such an organization should be democratically elected from the representatives of temples as well as other Hindu organizations.  The established political parties from all sides might fear the political implications of such an endeavour. To allay those fears, it is absolutely essential that the organization should be apolitical. Ideally the administration of temples should be depoliticized. It has been so politicized for over a century that complete depoliticization might be a tough call. Government involvement if any should be in a supervisory role and include all levels of government from the Panchayat level to the central government. The legislation has to be modified if needed. 

 

In conclusion, we hope that the ownership and management of temples evolve in such a way that above all the temples are protected and they thrive and survive for another generation. Many might not. For the survival of the temples their management has to be more representative of the actual stakeholders. Government involvement should be minimal to ensure fairness and transparency of finances. Change is sometimes difficult. But just change is needed urgently. 

 

Sources:

 

Presler, Franklin A. “The Structure and Consequences of Temple Policy in Tamil Nadu, 1967-81.” Pacific Affairs, vol. 56, no. 2, 1983, pp. 232–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2758652. Accessed 3 Nov. 2024.

 

K.Ashok Vardhan Shetty “ Why Tamil Nadu Temples may not thrive without state supervision” Times of India, October 6, 2021 ( K. Ashok Vardhan Shetty is a retired IAS officer and former Vice Chancellor of the Maritime University , Chennai

 

Vandana Menon “ Who should run Hindu temples? Tamil Nadu is the epicentre in new tug-of war” The Print  Feb  23, 2024

 

Dibakar Dutta “ As priests are arrested over donations in Tamil Nadu, read how a law brought by the British has taken over Hindu temples with mafia-like grip”  OpIndia April 30  2024 

 

Tourism, Culture and Religious Endowments Department Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments, Government of Tamil Nadu Demand No.47 Policy Note 2022-2023

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